Justice and Inequality

Throughout the history of time, people have been complaining about how justice is unequally delivered with the poor being the oppressed. The rich get away with everything and the law does not apply to them. People have come to adapt to the situation of inequality in the application of justice and thus public policy has been constantly under fire (Alesina et al. â€Å"Fighting Poverty† 6). In this paper we look at how justice is delivered and how simple cases may impact on the overall justice system.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Justice and Inequality specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Consider this case; a wealthy man is charged $290000 for a speeding fine. Should the rich be fined according to their wealth or should the overall system be equal to each and everyone. Hacker notes that the justice system has been questioned about being lenient to the rich but in subjecting the rich to more severe punishment does not really help the situation(â€Å"The Great Risk Shift† 41). Justice is blind and as such it should not recognize the wealth of a particular person. A murder should be a murderer irrespective of his status in society or his wealth and as such each and every person should serve the same sentence according to the law. The sections that follow shows how counterproductive a ruling as the one mentioned above could prove to be. Inequality exists in every society but what affects people is the feeling that disparities in social status contribute to people being trampled on and oppressed (Wilkinson, â€Å"The Impact of Inequality† 18). According to Wilkinson social hierarchy and inequality has contributed to a lot of problems a given society experiences (â€Å"The Impact of Inequality† 34). When court rulings tend to punish the rich more financially, the society is then reminded about the existing difference in power. If a rich man can pay $29,000 for a speeding ticket which is arguably more that what most people make in a month feeling of resentment may arise. At first people may think it a good ruling in that the rich should not be allowed to get away with crime but on the overall it may instill doubt about the justice system to the citizens. Suppose another case which may require jail time arises and the judge provides the option of paying or spending time in jail, this may cause a big commotion since people know that the rich can just pay their way out. By imposing such a huge fine on the rich offender, the judge has brought the issue of inequality to the law courts. The law should not recognize such aspects of society and in so doing the integrity of the court is undermined (Mishel et al â€Å"Working America† 32). When such a case is brought before a judge, the financial status of the offender does not matter and the ruling should be in accordance with the crime.Advertising Looking for essay on public administration? Let' s see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More One although could argues that in imposing such a fine, the judge seeks to show the public that the rich cannot get away easily just because they have money. The judge tries to instill fear to the rich that committing crime no matter how small may have dire consequences’. This ruling attacks the rich where it hurts the most, their wealth. It could be wrong not to consider how a ruling like this may impact the average citizen. Since most people who commit crimes like this may have difficulty paying the required money, they are less likely to engage in such activities such as over speeding. In contrast, the rich are able to pay these fines hence are more likely to continue doing this illegal activities since the repercussions can be easily handled (Vogel, â€Å"The Market for Virtue† 75). According to Stone, policy making is a constant struggle on criteria classification and the boundaries of this classes and the characterization of ideals that determine the behavior of people (â€Å"policy paradox† 13). Considering this train of thought it would seem that the just hash fine is in the right since most rich people commit crime because they can pay off the fines. Even though these huge fines may help deter the rich from committing this crimes the integrity of the court is undermined. Stone introduces the idea of inducements to create change. She argues for both the rational method that assumes when dealing with public policy instituting more sanctions to threaten wrongdoers will have a positive behavior change and the polis model. But under the polis model, she states that such sanctions may cause conflicts between the people in society, may make the wrongdoers harden in their resolve or may be sabotaged by the courts to further themselves. If judges start charging high fines for simple crimes just because one is rich, the courts could become a business where fines are used to further either the courts or the judges themselves. According to Stone such inducements highly rely on the target expectations and point of view and as such could be very hard to design and control them (â€Å"Policy Paradox†, 38). In order to have meaningful reforms of the economy and capitalism, meaningless policies such as those designed to make a point on the public should be abandoned (Reisch, â€Å"Future to success† 52). The structure of institutions needs to be changed in that everyone can relate hence creating a rift in the judgment delivered between the rich and the poor is unproductive.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Justice and Inequality specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Whilst the poor may feel a sense of satisfaction in seeing such a sentence delivered, no real impact is made to discourage a repeat of such behavior. If the judge was to seek a real sentence, then the repe at offender’s license could have been suspended or the offender should have spent some time in jail. The third point raised against such a ruling is the possibility of discrimination. In imposing such a huge fine, the judge portrays that the court views different groups of people. The rich are judged separately from the poor. How can the public trust such a court in other matters e.g. since women often feel oppressed should the court start granting the favors and delivering more severe punishment to men who have committed similar crimes. Inequality is a real problem in society but it has always been there (Regnier, 13). There are very many people who feel that they are not equally treated such as the physical disabled, minority ethnic groups, religious groups etc. If the court punishes one severely because he or she is rich should it not apply the same reasoning in dealing with case involving all these groups? Inequality mainly arises due to people’s perception. If the court treats a richer man different as it would a normal man, it then cements the feeling of inequality amongst the people. According to Pear (20), one of the reasons why life expectancy gap has been increasing is that people act different. The poor engage in risky behavior due to the fact that the society expects them to. Doctors take extra care when dealing with rich patient since they have the notion that it is expected of them (Pear, â€Å"Gap in Life Expectancy† 20). A poor man is less likely to properly educate his kid since from experience he has learnt that the world is harsh. In her book, Ehrenreich notes that the rich can by expensive lawyers, judges and even congressmen while the poor in society are struggling to feed themselves (â€Å"This Land is Their Land† 136). While most poor people are aware of this fact they really do not care much as it is usually kept secret. A ruling such as the one stated above may unknowingly create this feeling of indifference in the less fortunate members of society (Wilkinson, â€Å"The Impact of Inequality† 19). The public view is that since one is rich, he may as well pay the fine this is what Reich terms as misdirected moral anger. This feeling of resentment only hinders development as it prevents people from seeing and seizing opportunities. The courts action may bring attention that the rich can get away with a lot thus enhancing outrage among the lower classes of society.Advertising Looking for essay on public administration? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More According to Reich (â€Å"Supercapitalism† 63), capitalism is slowly stifling democracy. Capitalism prospers according to what most want as individual in the process democracy which is governed by collective desires is being destroyed. Elections are usually held under democratic principles and so is the constitution that each and every man abides by. The ruling in consideration may please a section of the society but looking at the larger picture is it endorsed by democratic principles. The law is aimed at protecting all, the rich and the poor alike. Subjecting the rich to more severe fines may create a feeling of fear amongst this section of society. Who controls what punishment the rich should receive? The constitution has not differentiated sentencing into two parts; one for the rich and another for the poor. The issue of fairness in society can be put through a very difficult test if rulings like this were a common occurrence. The sentence for repeat offenders has been st ated and through the years it has worked relatively fine. In conclusion, the sentencing of a $29000 speeding fine could only be justified if everyone else was paying the fine. Imposing such a fine because the offender is a rich person is wrong and may prove disastrous. Inequality exists but the main problem is not that one is richer that the other but the difference in treatment (Onishi, â€Å"Revival in Japan† 37). People hate feeling inferior as compared to others and as such this is the main inequality facing people. The court’s integrity may be undermined in that it could be accused that it is working for profits. The ruling may also be discriminative in nature thus spreading fear amongst the masses rather than settling their doubts. The ruling may also instill in peoples mind the feeling of inequality in that the rich are able to pay through any crime. The final point against such a ruling is that it may work against democracy that people have fought to maintain f or a long time. Such a ruling goes against the democratic principle for fairness to all. Justice is blind and as such one cannot discriminate between the rich and the poor when it comes to court matter once found guilty the sentence should be the same regardless of financial status, sex, orientation, religious beliefs or race. Works Cited Alesina, Alberto and Glaeser, Edward, L. Fighting Poverty in US and Europe. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2004. Print. Ehrenreich, Barbara. This Land is Their Land. New York: Henry Holt. 2008. Print Hacker, Jacob. The Great Risk Shift. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006. Print. Mishel, Lawrence, R. et al. The State of Working America 2008/2009. New York: Cornell University Press, 2009. Print. Onishi Normitsu. â€Å"Revival in Japan Brings Widening of Economic Gap.† New York Times 16 April 2006: 36-39. Print. Pear, Robert â€Å"Gap in Life Expectancy Widens for the Nation†, New York Times 23 March 2008. Print Regnier Pat. â₠¬Å"Are You Better Off.† Money Magazine 14 September 2007: 12-14. Print Reich, Robert. The Work of Nations. New York: Vintage Press, 1992. Print Reich, Robert. The Future of success. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2001. Print. Reich, Robert. Supercapitalism. New York: Vintage, 2007. Print. Stone, Deborah. Policy Paradox: The Art of Political Decision Making. New York: W.W. Norton, 1997. Print Wilkinson, Richard, The Impact of Inequality: How to Make Sick Societies Healthier,  London: Routledge, 2005. Print. Vogel, David. The Market for Virtue. Washington: Brookings Institution, 2006. Print. This essay on Justice and Inequality was written and submitted by user Juan Sutton to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Cinematography in Fight Club essays

Cinematography in Fight Club essays Both the cinematography and editing often have an important role in portraying to the viewer the underlying themes and ideas being communicated by a particular films plot. David Finchers film Fight Club is an excellent example of how various editorial and cinematic effects can greatly reinforce the themes of a film as well as create the an appropriate atmosphere in order to further enthrall the viewer into its plot. In Fight Club the protagonist unknowingly has a severe split personality disorder and is portrayed by two characters, the narrator played by Edward Norton and Tyler Durden played by Brad Pitt. While the fact that these two are actually the same person is not made known to the viewer until the end of the film, the majority of the film is spent creating a dichotomy between the behaviors and ideals of these two characters in order to shock the unsuspecting viewer upon discovering the truth about the protagonist. In a larger sense the differences between the protagonists con flicting personalities reflect differences inherent in the entire social structure of modern America. In making Fight Club David Fincher, as well as the films entire production team use a great deal of editing effects and cinematography in order to illustrate the dichotomy between, not just Tyler and the narrator, but also their conflicting ways of life. One of the most important methods used in showing the differences between the narrators stereotypical yuppie lifestyle and Tylers self destructive, anti-establishment driven compulsion is the lighting and color used in various scenes throughout the film. Places such as the narrators condo and workplace are always well lit and seem to be in perfect order. The color schemes of such places, as well as the outfits worn by the narrators coworkers and neighbors usually consist of neutral, non-flashy colors such as whites and gray and seem generic and typica...

Best Private Schools Offering Summer Experiences

Best Private Schools Offering Summer Experiences Many folks hear the words summer camp and think of living in cabins for a month, swimming in lakes, and participating all kinds of outdoor activities, like archery and ropes courses. Rarely does the phrase summer camp make someone think about an opportunity to prepare for the upcoming school year. ​ On the other hand, many folks hear the words summer school and  think of the stereotypical student who failed a class or needs more credits to graduate. Rarely does the phrase summer school make someone think of a positive summer camp-style experience. What if we told you theres a middle ground? A summer experience thats both fun and educational? Its real. And some of the best private schools in the country are offering students unique educational opportunities that are way more than just your typical classroom experience.   Lets look at a few of the  unexpected opportunities  that you might find at a private schools summer program. Travel the World Summer camp doesnt have to be  limited to only one campsite. Some schools offer summer travel experiences, taking students around the world to experience life away from home. Proctor Academy in New Hampshire offers a summer service opportunity, which takes students to places like Guatemala for two-week sessions. See the World From 30,000 Feet in the Air Thats right, aspiring aviators can attend a summer camp at Randolph-Macon School in Virginia. Students get the chance to participate in a highly specialized program  leading towards taking a solo flight in a Cessna 172.   Space Camp and Sustainability Sustainability is a popular topic at private schools  and is one that has led to several summer camp programs designed to educate students and get them thinking about how we can better serve the planet Earth. One such program exists at Cheshire Academy in Connecticut, which offers two different tracks from which students can choose for their summer study. One track focuses on the impact of humans on the earth, while the other takes a new approach to a space camp by exploring both the oceans and space. You even get to take field trips and even launch rockets - and were not just talking about small model rockets!   Learn a New Language For students looking to come to the United States for a boarding school experience, a summer camp can be a great way to master their English language skills. ELL/ESL students can often greatly benefit from these highly specialized summer classes that are often several weeks long and designed to immerse students in an English language environment. This not only helps participants to master their speaking, reading, and writing skills, but also gives them a preview of what dorm life is like, making the adjustment to boarding school in the fall a little easier. Some schools even offer an accelerated program, like New Hampton School in New Hampshire.   Get a Competitive Edge in Athletics Aspiring athletes, especially those looking to improve their skills in order to play varsity sports at private school, can benefit from a summer camp focused on athletics. Starting to participate in these camps during middle school can be a great way for high school coaches to see a student athletes drive and potential, which means building relationships with the school even before the admission season arrives. Athletic camps are available for the more novice student-athletes, as well, helping those players still learning the game to prepare to play on a sports team at a  private school for the first time. Baylor School in Tennessee offers a camp that meets the needs of both the competitive athlete and the recreational athlete.   Perfect a Creative Craft Young artists can find numerous private schools that offer creative summer camp experiences, ranging from drama and dance to music and drawing. And, some of the best private school programs even offer creative writing and literary-focused programs, as well as digital photography and animation courses. The opportunities for creative expression are endless, and the levels of experience can vary. While some schools, like the Putney School in Vermont, offer a wide variety of workshops for artists of all experience levels and interests, other schools take a more specialized approach. The Idyllwild Arts Academy in California offers intensive two-week programs as part of the  Idyllwild Arts Summer Program. These programs can sometimes help students looking to attend competitive art schools for college get a head-start on art portfolios. Try Your Hand at a Non-Traditional Trade Some schools offer incredibly unique programs, like Emma Willards Rosies Girls camp. Drawing inspiration from the fictional character Rosie the Riveter, the boarding school in New York offers girls the chance to experience what its like to work in  carpentry, automotive repair, masonry, and other non-traditional trades.

Juvenile Justice Project (outline) How Teenagers Should be Punished Assignment

Juvenile Justice Project (outline) How Teenagers Should be Punished - Assignment Example These minor violations result in harsh and brutal punishments from them. This is the simplest parenting trap many parents may fall into as at this point parents are trying to win their battle of ego and being superior rather than giving some learning to their child about how to choose good and bad. Parents must remember that this is not the wrestling match or a tug of war but only the time to demonstrate their role in the best possible way. Parents do have some authority over their child but that does not mean to change this into a power struggle scenario. (ii). Negative Impact Of Physical Aggression: Child who suffers a constant hitting by their parents may end up having violent behavior issues later with their friends, siblings or even with their better halves. Conclusion: Thus physical assaults practice on teenagers must be condemned as this may lead to loss of self confidence of child and respect of parents in the eye of child. Certain alternatives for combating the discipline issues with child must be kept in mind for the proper upbringing of the

The Logic of Descartes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

The Logic of Descartes - Essay Example The Logic of Descartes Descartes felt the only way to obtain true knowledge was to rely solely upon human reason while ignoring the senses. Descartes wrote several books regarding the nature of existence and knowledge, providing us with plenty of material to study and has had tremendous influence on those who have come after him. These books are typically divided into segments Descartes labels meditations. In these meditations, Descartes reflects upon the nature of the individual and determines that he does indeed exist as both a physical and a metaphysical being through a detailed consideration of the various elements that contribute to his awareness. Through statements such as ‘I am not lodged in my body like a pilot in a vessel’ and ‘I am not that set of limbs called the human body’, Descartes attempts to bridge the difference between the new sciences and the sensory perceptions of the old philosophy, introducing in the process a new way of thinking about thinking. In Descartes ’ Meditations on First Philosophy (1989), Descartes states emphatically ‘I think, therefore I am.’ This simple-sounding statement is the result of a discourse in which Descartes calls into question all of the assumptions he’s come to know as a result of the philosophical thought of his day. To seek a higher version of the truth, Descartes felt it was necessary to question every assumption that had even the shadow of a doubt. Through this questioning process, he demonstrates how thought, not observation or the senses, is really the right foundation for knowledge. â€Å"When I considered that the very same thoughts (presentations) which we experience when awake may also be experienced when we are asleep, while there is at that time not one of them true, I supposed that all the objects (presentations) that had ever entered into my mind when awake, had in them no more truth than the illusions of my dreams† (Descartes, 2001). The first issue to be overco me was the concept that knowledge defined by a â€Å"clear and distinct perception† as being clear of sensation is foiled by its own dependence on the senses within the definition. Descartes argues that in order to fool a mind, a mind must first exist, indicating that the senses are not necessary to the development of a thinking being, so we must be something more than the physical material we are made of, something more than ‘the set of limbs.’ In the process of breaking down all of his perceptions to determine the very basic, deepest thought that is not based on the senses, Descartes admits that there may be some way in which all of his senses could be fooled all of the time into thinking he exists; this in itself proves his existence. â€Å"But there is I know not what being, who is possessed at once of the highest power and the deepest cunning, who is constantly employing all his ingenuity in deceiving me. Doubtless, then, I exist, since I am deceived; and, let him deceive me as he may, he can never bring it about that I am nothing, so long as I shall be conscious that I am something† (Descartes, 1989). Meditation III builds off of Descartes’ earlier idea that he exists because he is capable of thinking – â€Å"I think, therefore I am.† Assuming that what he is able to perceive as distinct must be true, he strives to erase his mind of all information that has been gained through his five senses to arrive at what he knows deep within himself. â€Å"In this item of first knowledge, there is simply a clear and distinct

Star Traveling To The Millennium :: essays research papers fc

Now as we are rapidly approaching the Millenium many people are getting the blues. This seems absurd because this offers all of us a perfect chance to start again. NASA is embracing this chance to grow and expand their departments. The phrase, â€Å"Space, the final frontier,† expresses the world’s obsession with space travel, that started centuries before it even became popular 30 years ago in Gene Roddenberry’s TV series â€Å"Star Trek.† Science fiction has entertained our culture for years. Movies such as Star Wars and Planet of the Apes have helped fuel our desire to get off the planet earth, find new life forms, and conquer the stars. Science-fiction dreams of worlds beyond our solar system have taken on a more realistic aspect since astronomers discovered that the universe contains planets in surprisingly large numbers. Studying those distant planets might show how special Earth really is and tell us more about our place in the universe (NASA homep age). Finding a planet that can support human life would revolutionize our society into the Jetson’s. These ideas are soon to become our realities. NASA is currently experimenting with many methods to try to explore the outer edges of the galaxy. In order to understand NASA’s excitement about star traveling, we will first fly through current projects concerning space travel, second explore three possible technologies being experimented with for the year 2000, finally take a trip into our future and experience how star traveling will change our lives as we approach the end of the second millenium.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  NASA’s goal of faster, better, cheaper has been the motivation for them to develop new mission concepts, and to validate never-before-used technologies in space. The new technologies, if proven to work, will revolutionize space exploration in the next century. According to NASA’s New Millennium Program home page, last updated on September 16,1999, NASA’s current project of Deep Space 1 demonstrates some of their most exotic technologies. One of the most impressive is the testing of an ion engine that is supposed to be 10 times more efficient than liquid or solid rocket engines. Deep Space 1 was launched on October 24, 1998. It is the first mission under NASA’s New Millennium Program, which features flight testing of new technology, rather than science as its main focus (Rayman 4). These new technologies will make spacecraft of the future smaller, more economical, reliable, and closer to the goal of efficient space travel.

Malard Manufactoring Essay

1. The balance of the structure in Malard Manufacturing is very flat and horizontal, and basically has very little vertical structure at all. Julie Crandell who is the executive vice president, likes to keep very tight control among the organisation in which she controls. Julie demands that department managers check with her before any significant decision are made or changed, by doing this Julie has made her span of control too big for her to handle in the due time she has to complete it by, it’s become very difficult for Julie as she has to deal with new inexperienced department managers, who are becoming uncommunicative and frustrated with each other. Vertical organisational structure means a strict top down structure. Typically this structure has been a favored form for many business and other types of organisations. In such an organisation, the chain of command is usually very important and must be followed. In faster moving, dynamic conditions, a vertical organizational structure can become very inefficient, for example, requiring decisions to slowly go through many people along the vertical chain of command before actions can be made by those who need permission to act. Horizontal organizational structure means a flat or closer to flat organizational. In a perfectly horizontal structure, there are no leaders, so usually this means a structure that is still vertical, but has been made more horizontal than what is typically referred to as vertical, Julie’s structure for example. In general, any large organizational structure has both vertical and horizontal aspects to it and depending on whether it is considered to be more vertical or more horizontal results in what it is called. The communication between executive vice president Julie and the department managers is minimal as stated above. Julie needs to work out a new strategy of horizontal communication that will give her the results she needs, possibly a centralised wheel approach for faster and more accurate communication. Examples of different horizontal communication are as follows. Intradepartmental problem solving. These messages take place among members of the same department and concern task accomplishments. For example: ‘Bec, can you please help us fill out the inventory report form?’ Interdepartmental coordination. Interdepartmental messages facilitate the accomplishment of joint projects or tasks. For example: ‘Bec, please contact the Materials department and arrange a meeting to discuss the specifications for the new product materials, we may not be able to meet there needs’. Change initiative and improvements. These messages are designed to share information among teams and departments that can help the organisation change, grow and improve. For example: ‘We are having a discussing about the budgets of several departments and would like your input for the discussion’. 2. If I were Julie Crandell, I would feel compelled to organise a project meeting with all department managers and discuss a way to create a new strategy or work out the difficulties in the existing one, so that it will be successfully appropriate to attain the result we need as an organisation. Whilst having the project meeting and discussing the new deadline for project CV305 and receiving all department managers input and problems, I would then organise weekly project meetings along with regular progress reports, I would then suggest a decentralised management approach, the advantage is Julie the Senior manager would have time to then concentrate on the most important decisions, as the other decisions can be undertaken by other people down the organisation structure. Some good examples of having a decentralised management approach are, Decision making is a form of empowerment, and empowerment can increase motivation and therefore mean that staff output increases. Empowerment will enable departments and their employees to respond faster to changes and new challenges. Whereas it may take senior managers like Julie longer to come up with a similar response. Staff within departments would sometimes have a greater knowledge of the product their producing and would then be able to make better choices and decisions then say Julie, there for this approach would suit the organisation better then all ways lining up to see Julie for her advice and approval, which may take a long time as Julie had little time to oversee everything with her centralised approach. Another approach Julie could take would be to hire a personal assistant. As Julie is a person that has so much on her plate for example, scheduling management meetings, answering phone calls, dropping letters off to the post office and checking her schedule, as well as many more other duties. These errands could all be done by anyone else like a personal assistant therefore saving Julie precious time so she can concentrate on more important tasks then organising meetings and writing up reports. 3. Julie has made a wrong choice by choosing to go with the centralised decision making structure, instead she needs to find a more appropriate structure that will be able to deliver and suit the companies desired outcome in the time line they have set for the new product. This structure will need to be decentralised, so decisions are made quicker and more accurate as Julie may not have quite well an understanding of the product then say the department manager. A team based approach is what I personally think Julie should use for the development of new future products. One of the best forms of business organisation is the team-based structure. A team based structure is an organisation that groups employees on the same work level into teams that perform specific functions within their job tasks. This structure combines the low-overhead, minimal management structure of a lateral structure with the team efforts common to a hybrid structure. There are numerous advantages to a team-based lateral organizational structure. A team-based organisational structure is similar to a traditional lateral structure, in carrying less overhead management to cause delays in decision-making and implementation of best practices or new ideas. With no need to wait on a lengthy chain of command to receive approval for ideas or changes to the, a team-based lateral structure can make necessary changes on the fly and allow for rapid response to different market conditions. This is especially important in today’s digital economy. By spreading the responsibility among teams involving everyone involved in project CV305 rather than having a single person (Julie) in charge of all decision-making or management of a project, decisions can be reached by a quorum and can take place rapidly as team members can be assigned to research areas of need, implement changes, or work on other problems while other team members continue to focus on the current situation of the project. Decisions made by a team are often better thought out and more effectively implemented than decisions made by a single individual, that being Julie in this case. A team-based organisational structure will eliminate Julie’s centralised flat chain of command, Julie’s centralised approach caused delays and worker frustration with cumbersome communication lines. A team can more effectively raise concerns to management without having to wait a unpredictable time for Julie’s response, This can make individuals more willing to speak out about problems or inefficiency due to not having to wait, and being able to receive their answers quicker. If Julie were to establish a task force or assign a project manager, so they can establish and assist departments in representing them, and to share their information with other departments which will enable coordination. In addition to creating task forces, companies also set up cross functional teams. A cross functional team furthers horizontal coordination because participants from several departments meet regularly to solve ongoing problems of common interest (Mintzberg, 1979).